7. First Nations, Métis and Inuit experiences

Introduction

As of 2018, Ontario estimated there are 64,000 First Nations, Métis and Inuit students. in provincially funded schools across the province.[483] These students attending provincially funded schools[484] have the right to read under the Ontario Human Rights Code as well as education rights that flow from their inherent Indigenous rights, Treaties, the Canadian Constitution and Charter of Rights and Freedoms and international law.[485] For example, the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UN Declaration) emphasizes that Canada (including the provinces) has a responsibility to make sure Indigenous children have the right to all levels and forms of State education without discrimination, and access, when possible, to an education in their own culture and in their own language (Article 21). Article 22 affirms that particular attention must be paid to the rights and special needs of Indigenous children and persons with disabilities.

The term Indigenous is also used to collectively describe First Nations, Métis and Inuit. However, using First Nations, Métis and Inuit better recognizes that there are distinct groups of Indigenous peoples in Ontario who have their own political organizations, urban agencies, economies, histories, cultures, languages, spiritual beliefs and territories. There are also distinctions within these groups (for example, there are many distinct First Nations communities in Ontario). Although a distinctions-based approach is better, sometimes this report uses “Indigenous” to identify experiences that may be held in common by First Nations, Inuit and Métis peoples. This is consistent with the approach used in other inquiries, such as the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls.[486]

Legal decisions have affirmed that First Nations children are entitled to at least the same level of services as non-First Nations children, whether they live on- or off-reserve. Extra measures may be necessary and legally required to overcome the historic disadvantage and unique challenges First Nations, Métis and Inuit children face.[487]

Despite this, First Nations, Métis and Inuit students are behind other students when it comes to the right to read. Data shows that First Nations, Métis and Inuit persons are showing poorer literacy skills and educational achievement compared to other people. The inquiry gathered information on the unique and compounded forms of disadvantage that contribute to this achievement gap. Particular attention needs to be paid to the intersectional needs of First Nations, Métis and Inuit students with special needs to meet their substantive equality rights, treaty rights and their rights under international law.

The discussion below focuses on the right to read in English and/or French. However, it is important to note that there are many First Nations, Métis and Inuit languages in Ontario.[488] These languages are fundamental to the identities, cultures, spirituality, relationships to the land, world views and self-determination of First Nations, Inuit and Métis peoples.[489]

Colonial and assimilation policies in Canada targeted First Nations, Métis and Inuit languages. For example, children in residential schools were often forbidden to speak their languages, severely punished for speaking them, and made to learn English or French.[490] This had a multigenerational impact, as residential school survivors were not able to pass their languages on to their children.[491] As a result, generations of First Nations, Inuit and Métis peoples have lost access to their ancestral languages. Several Calls to Action by the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada (TRC) relate to promoting Indigenous languages, including in education.[492]

Under section 35 of the Constitution Act,[493] “Aboriginal” rights include Indigenous language rights.[494] Although Indigenous language rights are beyond the scope of this report, the OHRC acknowledges and supports the central importance of preserving, revitalizing and strengthening Indigenous languages, alongside achieving the right to read in English and/or French.[495]

The OHRC also acknowledges that First Nations, Métis and Inuit communities must be full participants in decision-making about their own education (for example, when developing programs to support First Nations, Métis and Inuit students in provincially funded schools) or education about them (for example, when integrating First Nations, Métis and Inuit history and perspectives into provincial curriculum). This report’s recommendations about First Nations, Métis and Inuit students must be implemented in partnership with First Nations, Métis and Inuit governments, communities and organizations.

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Context for understanding First Nations, Métis and Inuit students’ right to read

Warning: This section deals with topics that may cause trauma to some readers. It includes references to mistreatment of First Nations, Inuit and Métis peoples, physical and sexual abuse of children, racial and sexual violence, self-harm and suicide. Please engage in self-care as you read this material. There are many resources available if you need additional support, including on the OHRC website under List of supports.

 

Colonialism, racism and assimilationist policies

The starting point for any consideration of First Nations, Métis and Inuit students’ right to read is the broader context of the treatment of Indigenous peoples in Canada. Reclaiming Power and Place: The Final Report of the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls recently summarized this:

Canada is a settler colonial country. European nations, followed by the new government of “Canada,” imposed its own laws, institutions, and cultures on Indigenous Peoples while occupying their lands. Racist colonial attitudes justified Canada’s policies of assimilation, which sought to eliminate First Nations, Inuit, and Métis Peoples as distinct Peoples and communities.[496]

Many of Canada’s assimilationist policies and structures were targeted to First Nations, Métis and Inuit children and families. Two significant examples are residential schools and the “Sixties Scoop.”

An estimated 150,000 First Nations, Métis and Inuit children attended residential schools from the 17th century until the late 1990s. Children were forcibly removed from their homes, taken to residential schools that were often far from their communities,[497] and prevented from leaving.[498] They were subjected to harsh discipline; malnutrition and starvation; poor health care; physical, emotional and sexual abuse; neglect; and their languages and cultures were deliberately suppressed. Thousands of children died while attending residential schools, and the burial sites of many children remain unknown.[499] In 2021, many unmarked graves were found at former residential school sites,[500] providing further evidence of the violence and loss of life in residential schools.

The residential school system “was an integral part of a conscious policy of cultural genocide.”[501] Its real goal was not to provide an education:

The residential school system failed as an education system. It was based on racist assumptions about the intellectual and cultural inferiority of Aboriginal people – the belief that Aboriginal children were incapable of attaining anything more than a rudimentary elementary-level or vocational education. Consequently, for most of the system’s history, the majority of students never progressed beyond elementary school. The government and church officials who operated the residential schools ignored the positive emphasis that the Treaties and many Aboriginal families placed on education. Instead, they created dangerous and frightening institutions that provided little learning.[502]

Between 1890 and 1950, an estimated 60% of residential school students failed to advance beyond Grade 3. In addition to the other harms caused, residential schools’ failure to provide an adequate education has contributed to a legacy of poverty, lower education levels, and ongoing social and economic marginalization for Indigenous peoples.[503]

Some Métis children attended residential schools.[504] However, the federal government thought the provinces and territories should be responsible for educating and assimilating Métis people. Provincial and territorial governments did not make sure there were schools in Métis communities, or Métis children were admitted into the public school system.[505] For a period of time, Métis children were not allowed in federal residential schools or provincial day schools and received no schooling.[506] When they did attend provincial schools, they were often unwelcome and experienced stigma and racism.[507] After the 1950s, many Métis children attended residential schools operated by provincial governments in northern and remote areas. The TRC report noted: “There is no denying that the harm done to the children, their parents, and the Métis community was substantial.”[508]

The TRC report discusses some of the unique elements of residential schooling in northern Canada. Residential schools in the north were established much later than in the south. Inuit students began entering residential schools in the 1950s. The schools contributed to the rapid transformation of traditional, land-based lifestyles and economies in the region.[509]

The more recent history of residential schools in the north means there are many living Survivors today. The TRC report noted that the impacts of these schools is particularly strongly felt in the north and among Inuit:

Inuit students face one of the largest gaps in terms of educational attainment. A disproportionately high number of northern parents are residential school Survivors or intergenerational Survivors and that Inuit students face one of the largest gaps in educational attainment.[510]

Although there were some differences in the northern experience, much of the harm done to Inuit students, families and communities is the same as suffered by other Indigenous peoples in other parts of the country:

While the northern experience was unique in some ways, the broader themes remain constant. Children were taken from their parents, often with little in the way of consultation or consent. They were educated in an alien language and setting. They lived in institutions that were underfunded and understaffed, and were prey to harsh discipline, disease and abuse.[511]

In addition to disrupting the intergenerational transmission of values and skills, northern schools did not provide students with the skills needed for employment.[512]

The residential school system and the racist assimilationist policies it embodied fed into another systematic targeting of First Nations, Métis and Inuit children and families: the “Sixties Scoop.” Starting in the 1950s, child welfare authorities removed children from their families and communities in great numbers. Children were sent to be fostered or placed for adoption in mostly non-Indigenous families all over Canada, the United States and even abroad.[513] As residential schools began to close, increasing numbers of Indigenous children were taken into care by child welfare agencies. By the late 1970s, Indigenous children accounted for 44% of the children in care in Alberta, 51% in Saskatchewan, and 60% of the children in care in Manitoba.[514] The significant over-representation of First Nations, Métis and Inuit children in child welfare continues in Ontario today. Despite being only 4.1% of the population in Ontario under age 15, First Nations, Métis and Inuit children represent approximately 30% of children in foster care.[515]

These are just two examples of centuries of colonialist policies and practices aimed at undermining cultural identity and assimilating First Nations, Inuit and Métis peoples.[516] In recent years, the Government of Canada has publicly apologized for these policies.[517] Most recently, in response to the discovery of children’s remains at a residential school in Kamloops, Canada acknowledged:

The mistreatment of Indigenous children is a tragic and shameful part of Canada’s history. Residential schools were part of a colonial policy that removed Indigenous children from their communities. Thousands of children were sent to these schools and never returned to their families. The families were often provided with little to no information on the circumstances of their loved one’s death nor the location of their burial. Children in residential schools were forbidden to speak their language and practice their own culture. The loss of children who attended residential schools is unthinkable and Canada remains resolved to supporting families, Survivors and communities and to memorializing those lost innocent souls.[518]

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Ongoing oppression, racism and disadvantage

Current conditions for First Nations, Inuit and Métis peoples are a direct consequence of this history. Today, First Nations, Inuit and Métis peoples in Canada experience multiple negative social and economic disadvantages. Although the experience of individuals and communities varies, these disadvantages include low levels of education, high levels of unemployment, disproportionate involvement in the criminal justice system, extreme levels of poverty, inadequate housing, and physical and mental health disparities.[519]

First Nations, Inuit and Métis peoples continue to face high levels of systemic discrimination as well as individual acts of racism.[520] A Coroner’s inquest examining the deaths of Reggie Bushie, Jethro Anderson, Jordan Wabasse, Kyle Morrisseau, Curran Strang, Paul Panacheese and Robyn Harper, seven youth from the Nishnawbe Aski Nation (NAN) who died when attending a First Nations high school in Thunder Bay (the Seven Youth inquest), heard evidence of pervasive racism experienced by First Nations youth:

Racism is often directed against First Nations people when they are off-reserve. Many witnesses spoke of experiences like being called a “stupid savage” or told “Indians go home.” As one witness put it, “They treat me like something, not someone.” Dennis Franklin Cromarty High School students report that they routinely experience verbal abuse and objects thrown at them as they walk on city streets. Serious violence, including assault and murder, are known to have occurred.[521]

First Nations, Inuit and Métis peoples are both disproportionately victimized and imprisoned.[522] The National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls (MMIWG) found that the violence First Nations, Inuit and Métis people, particularly women, girls and 2SLGBTQQIA[523] people, have experienced amounts to a race-based genocide of Indigenous peoples.[524]

First Nations, Inuit and Métis peoples experience higher rates of mental illness, major depression, Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD), prescription and illegal drug use, alcoholism and gambling addiction. Indigenous Friendship Centres have reported that undiagnosed mental health issues such as depression, anxiety, FASD and attention deficit disorder have been increasing within urban Indigenous communities in Ontario.[525] The COVID-19 pandemic has worsened pre-existing mental health disparities between Indigenous peoples and others.[526]

Suicide rates are higher among First Nations, Inuit and Métis peoples than among other people, although they differ by community, Indigenous group, age and sex.[527] Rates among youth in some NAN communities in northern Ontario are among the highest in the world.[528] These deaths by suicide deeply affect family, friends, peers and Indigenous communities at large. The impact can be especially severe when the deceased is a young person and in smaller communities where many people are related.[529]

Due to intergenerational trauma, social isolation, poverty and food insecurity, as well as inadequate health and community services, First Nations, Métis and Inuit children experience high levels of childhood adversity such as abuse, neglect[530] and household substance abuse.[531] As discussed below, these conditions compound other vulnerabilities. This has implications for students’ instructional needs related to their right to learn to read.

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The experience and effect of trauma

The trauma[532] caused by residential schools, the child welfare system and other experiences of oppression and discrimination, both past and present, has affected generations of First Nations, Inuit and Métis peoples. One study on the historical, multigenerational and intergenerational trauma experienced by Indigenous peoples explains:

Over an extended period of time, the effects of this trauma can reverberate throughout an entire population, resulting in a legacy of physical, psychological, and economic disparities that persist across generations…Not only are individuals and families affected, but their communities are affected as well…[533]

Dr. Amy Bombay, a researcher who is Ojibway (Rainy River First Nation), has studied how trauma is transmitted across generations and the enduring effects of residential schools and other trauma on Indigenous health. Chronic exposure to trauma results in individual effects such as anxiety, depression, addiction (as a coping mechanism), low self-esteem, anger, self-destructive behaviours, and high rates of death by suicide.[534] It also affects families and communities including by contributing to a breakdown of family and social structures and relationships. Trauma becomes cyclical and cumulative with new stressors and traumas building on previously existing trauma.[535]

Colonial systems and institutions such as residential schools broke cultural and familial ties, so current institutional systems that ignore the importance of culture and family for First Nations, Inuit and Métis peoples can perpetuate, rather than alleviate, intergenerational trauma.[536]

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Under-resourcing of federally funded First Nations schools

In Ontario, Métis and Inuit students generally attend provincially funded schools. First Nations students may attend First Nations schools on reserve or provincially funded schools. Approximately 14,000 First Nations students attend First Nations schools in Ontario.[537]

First Nations schools on reserve receive their funding from the federal government. Historically they have been chronically under-funded and under-resourced.[538] The federal government’s investment in a student in a First Nations school has been significantly less than the provincial government’s investment in a student in a provincially funded school. Comparing per-pupil funding is challenging, because funding formulas are complex, and allocations to provincial boards can vary based on the needs of the board.[539] However, some past estimates for Ontario suggest that First Nations schools received less than half the funding per student than small, rural, provincially funded schools that have high-needs students.[540] This discrepancy is magnified because First Nations schools often have greater educational challenges. Relative to the provincially funded schools being used as comparators, the schools on reserve often have fewer students, are more remote, confront much worse socio-economic conditions and have a particular language and culture.[541]

In addition to per pupil funding differences, First Nations schools historically received no money for things students in provincially funded schools take for granted like libraries, technology, extra-curricular activities and school board services. Also, First Nations schools received no funding for language and culture activities.[542]

Underfunding of special education and related services has been a particular issue in First Nations schools. First Nations schools have received less funding than provincially funded school boards to meet the special education needs of First Nations students. Specialist services such as speech language therapy are often unavailable or very expensive.[543] For First Nations students living in remote northern areas, underfunding of services intersects with inaccessibility, since barriers to a variety of health and community services are a chronic problem.

In 2009, the Mississaugas of the Credit First Nation filed a human rights challenge with the Canadian Human Rights Commission alleging unequal and inadequate special education services for First Nations communities. The challenge led to the 2017 First Nations Special Education Review Report,[544] the product of in-depth and collaborative work by First Nations educators and administrators from across the province.

This report showed that particular attention needs to be paid to the intersectional needs of First Nations students with special needs, and made recommendations to Ontario and Canada. The recommendations were incorporated into a Chiefs of Ontario position paper[545] and received the full support of Ontario First Nations leaders at the Chiefs of Ontario’s 2017 All Ontario Chiefs Conference. In Resolution 38/17, the Ontario Chiefs in Assembly declared that they “fully support and accept the recommendations.”[546]

The First Nations Special Education Review Report described serious inequities in First Nations special education. These include underfunding; lack of access to special education staff and specialists; lack of comprehensive early childhood education programs; and inadequate facilities, among others. It noted the unique needs and costs in northern and isolated First Nations, and the need for additional funding to address those challenges.[547]

Underfunding and remoteness have also made it hard for First Nations schools to attract and retain qualified teachers and support staff. Teachers at First Nations schools are paid less than their provincially funded school counterparts, work in more challenging conditions (for example, in schools that are in disrepair), have little or no opportunities for professional development, and may have limited access to housing.[548] This has a negative impact on the quality of education in First Nations schools.

In 2019, the federal government and Assembly of First Nations (AFN) announced a new co-developed approach to funding First Nations schools.[549] The goal of the new approach is to make sure on-reserve schools have access to more predictable and sustainable funding based on real needs and real costs.[550] The OHRC hopes this new approach will help address some of the issues affecting First Nations schools that have persisted for years. In the meantime, many First Nations students who start off attending First Nations schools face many challenges entering the provincially funded school system. They may be many years behind in their education, including with their reading.

First Nations schools in Ontario often follow the provincial curriculum. Their teachers receive the same training as all other teachers who complete a teacher education program in an Ontario faculty of education. Therefore, this report’s recommendations on Ontario’s curriculum and teacher preparation are relevant to and will directly affect reading instruction in First Nations schools.

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Efforts to promote First Nations, Métis and Inuit children’s substantive equality

In recent years, there is a growing recognition that to have substantive equality, First Nations, Métis and Inuit children must have timely access to the same level of services other children receive. They may also need extra measures to address their unique needs.

First Nations children can seek access to products, services and supports they need through federal Jordan’s Principle funding, and Inuit children through the federal Inuit Child First Initiative. The Métis Nation of Ontario (MNO) is a Métis-specific governance structure in Ontario that supports its Métis citizens. In recent years, the MNO launched an Education Support Advocacy program in Ontario schools to help its citizens navigate the public education system and connect with services such as tutoring supports, psychological assessments and speech-language therapists.

It is not clear if school boards know about these supports for First Nations, Métis and Inuit students, or whether they are proactively identifying situations where they could be accessed.

 

Jordan’s Principle

Jordan's Principle is a legally binding child-first principle that any public service ordinarily available to all other children must be made available to First Nations children without delay or denial. It is named in memory of Jordan River Anderson, a First Nations child from Norway House Cree Nation in Manitoba. Jordan had complex medical needs and spent more than two years in hospital unnecessarily because the Province of Manitoba and the federal government could not agree on who should pay for at home care. Jordan died in the hospital at the age of five without ever having spent a day in his family home.

Jordan’s Principle is a child-focused legal principle that confirms First Nations children should not experience gaps in levels of service, including in education, due to jurisdictional or funding disputes between the provincial and federal governments or among government departments. It aims to ensure substantive equality for First Nations children, by making sure they can access all public services in a way that reflects their distinct cultural needs and takes full account of historical disadvantage linked to colonization. The goal of the principle is to ensure that children do not experience any service denials, delays or disruptions because they are First Nations.

Jordan’s Principle can be used to access services to support students, such as early childhood services, speech therapy, professional assessments (including speech language and psychoeducational assessments), mental health services, assistive technology and tutoring. First Nations children meeting any one of the following criteria are eligible for consideration under Jordan’s Principle:

1. A child resident on or off reserve who is registered or eligible to be registered under the Indian Act
2. A child resident on or off reserve who has one parent/guardian who is registered or eligible to be registered under the Indian Act
3. A child resident on or off reserve who is recognized by their Nation for the purposes of Jordan’s Principle
4. A child who is ordinarily resident on reserve.[551]

The inquiry heard examples of First Nations students with learning disabilities receiving services such as assessments through the Jordan’s Principle process. The process for applying for Jordan’s Principle funding is set out in handbooks and resource guides.[552]

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Inuit Child First Initiative

The Inuit Child First Initiative is administered by the federal government.[553] It is similar to Jordan’s Principle as its goal is to address the needs of Inuit children based on principles of substantive equality, cultural appropriateness and the best interests of the child.[554] The types of health, social and educational supports that can be funded include:

• Cultural services from Elders
• Mental health counseling
• Assessments and screenings
• Therapeutic services (speech therapy, occupational therapy)
• Tutoring services
• Educational assistants
• Specialized school transportation
• Professional assessments
• Assistive technologies and electronics.

To be eligible, Inuit children must be recognized by an Inuit land claim organization in Canada and must be under age 18.[555]

 

Métis Nation of Ontario Education Support Advocacy program

Due to a long-identified gap in school supports that negatively affects Métis students’ success in school, the MNO launched an Education Support Advocacy (ESA) program in Ontario schools to help its citizens navigate the public education system and connect with services such as tutoring supports, psychological assessments, speech-language therapists and other services. The program has been so successful it has been expanded and there is now an Early Learning ESA program with a focus on early childhood and early intervention.

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Impact on the ability to learn to read

Whether a First Nations, Métis and Inuit student has a disability or not, the context described above has a significant impact on their experience of learning to read. First Nations, Métis and Inuit students who also have reading difficulties are further disadvantaged. They have also been significantly affected by the COVID-19 pandemic.[556]

Students are unlikely to be able to achieve their full educational potential when their needs are not being met. Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs is a theory that has implications in education. It suggests that students’ learning will be compromised if their following fundamental human needs are not being met:

1. Physiological needs: food, water, sleep, clothing and warmth
2. Need for safety: feeling safe and secure at home and in school
3. Need for belongingness and love: family, friendships, belonging, inclusion
4. Esteem needs: self-esteem, confidence, achievement, respect by others
5. Self-actualization: achieving one’s full potential.

Within Maslow’s theory, needs are hierarchical and some needs are more foundational than others. Maslow described physiological needs and the need for safety as the most basic and important. A student cannot reach their full potential – at the top of the pyramid – when basic needs are not being met.

Maslow’s theory was informed by the time he spent with the Siksika (Blackfoot) Nation in Alberta.[557] Maslow’s theory has been re-framed to better reflect Indigenous relational world views by Native American child welfare expert Terry Cross. Reinterpreting human needs through Indigenous eyes incorporates greater interconnectedness between individual needs and family, community, society and the world.[558]

The Medicine Wheel symbol is used to represent the teachings and beliefs of many First Nations peoples.[559] Traditional medicine wheels (sacred circles) are thousands of years old and were often depicted using stones set out in the form of a wheel. Although the beliefs underlying the Medicine Wheel are widely held among First Nations, the representation and recognition of those beliefs varies.[560] Some Métis and Inuit may also identify with the Medicine Wheel.[561] The model below uses the First Nations Medicine Wheel diagram to show the interconnectedness of needs, which must come into balance for optimal well-being.[562]

 

Figure 1

 

The historic and ongoing disadvantage First Nations, Inuit and Métis peoples experience means that students are more likely to:

• Live in poverty
• Experience food insecurity
• Lack access to clean drinking water[563]
• Live in substandard, overcrowded housing conditions
• Be at greater risk for abuse and neglect
• Have experienced trauma
• Have experienced racism
• Have experienced or witnessed violence or death of a family or community member
• Lack a sense of belonging in school
• Experience eroded cultural identity and spiritual disconnection.

When any or several of these factors are present, it can have a negative effect on a First Nations, Métis or Inuit student’s education, including their experience in learning to read.

A Statistics Canada report[564] looked at factors that are associated with lower perceived school achievement among off-reserve First Nations children. It found several factors have a negative impact on achievement:

• School attendance, specifically having missed school for two or more weeks in a row during the school year
• Having a learning disability or ADHD
• Having parents who attended residential schools.

Conversely, among off-reserve First Nations children, these factors were associated with relatively higher perceived achievement at school:

• Having good relationships with teachers, or with friends and classmates
• Having parents who were satisfied with school practices (such as when the school provides information on the child’s academic progress, attendance and behaviour)
• Reading books every day
• Playing sports at least once a week, or taking part in art or music activities at least once a week
• Living in a family in the highest household income quintile (the top 20%).

Many of these findings are consistent with what we heard in the inquiry. In our student/parent survey, we asked respondents whether the student’s Indigenous ancestry had a positive, negative or no impact on their experience in school related to their reading disability. For First Nations students, 18% of respondents reported a positive or somewhat positive impact, 33% reported no impact and 45% said it had a somewhat negative or negative impact.[565] For Métis students, 25% said their ancestry had a positive impact, 60% said it had no impact, and 10% said it had a negative impact. There were no responses about Inuit students.

 

Table 15: Impact of Indigenous ancestry on the student's school experience related to their reading disability[566]

	Total	First Nations	Métis
Positive	13%	11%	15%
Somewhat positive	9%	7%	10%
No impact	43%	33%	60%
Somewhat negative impact	13%	15%	10%
Negative	17%	30%	0%
Unknown	2%	0%	5%
Not applicable	2%	4%	0%

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Impact of residential schools

Having parents or guardians who attended residential schools is associated with lower success at school. All other factors being equal, First Nations children from these families were less likely to be doing “very well” or “well” at school compared to First Nations children whose parents/guardians had not attended residential schools.[567] The impact of residential schools came up often in our First Nations, Métis and Inuit engagements. For example, one First Nations person said: “Residential schooling is still fresh in our memory. That is a consideration that needs to come up in your inquiry.”

The OHRC heard that low levels of education and low literacy are a challenge for some First Nations, Métis and Inuit parents and grandparents:[568]

I really don’t know how to write. I asked a teacher to help me in Grade 5 but no one was there to help me. So I tried to help myself. I still don’t know how to write. It was really hard, especially after having my kids. I couldn’t help them.

 

Impact of trauma

School board representatives and First Nations, Métis and Inuit participants told the inquiry that intergenerational trauma or trauma related to a death or tragedy in the family or community can affect student learning. First Nations, Métis and Inuit participants noted that schools are not well equipped to use trauma-informed teaching strategies, particularly for Indigenous trauma, and students with trauma and other mental health issues “get passed over” without ever receiving effective assessment, teaching or supports. They can be two to three grades behind their peers.

A First Nations adult with a learning disability stressed the importance of trauma-informed schools for First Nations, Métis and Inuit students, especially students with learning disabilities. He talked about how the experience of trauma is shaped by intersections between Indigenous identity and disability. He described the trauma he experienced as an Indigenous person being compounded by the trauma of being singled out in front of the class: “Teachers should be trauma-informed” so they know not to engage in traumatic practices “like when an Indigenous kid who can’t read is asked to read at the front of the class and the rest of the class starts laughing.”

One of the inquiry school boards with a very high First Nations, Métis and Inuit student population, Keewatin-Patricia, has recently announced it is moving towards becoming a trauma-informed board. Alberta is also promoting trauma-informed practices in its schools.[569]

First Nations, Métis and Inuit students who are in foster care face their own unique challenges in school. For example, the inquiry heard that they have additional issues with school attendance. This may be due to having to relocate often, and deal with bureaucracies with different enrollment and registration eligibility for services. There is also a lack of comprehensive system-wide resources to support them.

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Impact of poverty

Poverty and social disadvantage affect school readiness and performance. Poverty undermines the ability of families and children to engage in at-home learning, due to lack of access to books, technology and other resources and supports. One inquiry school board described poverty as one of the biggest barriers to learning for all students, but noted that poverty is deeper and more prevalent among the board’s First Nations families. The board noted that students who experience poverty are often at a disadvantage before they even start school: “When students are living in intergenerational poverty, the environment they are in, through no fault of anything other than poverty, does not have components necessary for pre-school.”

An organization that serves urban Inuit described housing and food insecurity as significant issues affecting Inuit students.

 

School attendance

Irregular school attendance is a significant barrier to Indigenous student achievement[570] and is caused by many of the systemic issues identified in this report. Both parents and educators told the inquiry that some First Nations, Métis and Inuit children miss school for several reasons often related to historical disadvantage, current systemic barriers and discrimination, as well as the other reasons children may miss school.

The legacy of residential schools as well as current negative experiences with racism and marginalization in the education system have resulted in mistrust and anxiety.[571] One First Nations participant at an Indigenous engagement said: “Thunder Bay has an attendance problem. Our people do not trust schools.”

Representatives from an inquiry school board also noted that mistrust affects school engagement: “There is a trust issue with Indigenous children and families due to the residential school system as, historically, their trust has been abused.”

First Nations, Inuit and Métis peoples’ experiences with child welfare can intersect with poverty to also have a negative impact on school attendance. The OHRC heard that parents who live in poverty and struggle with food insecurity may not send their children to school if they cannot afford food, fearing that school authorities may view this as parental neglect and alert child welfare authorities.

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Intersectional effects of being First Nations, Métis and Inuit and having a learning disability

Significantly for the inquiry, another factor that has been found to have an impact on Indigenous student achievement is being diagnosed with a learning disability:

Having been diagnosed with a learning disability or with attention deficit disorder was also associated with lower success at school. All other factors being equal, the odds of doing “very well” or “well” at school for off-reserve First Nations children who had been diagnosed with a learning disability were half (0.5) the odds for children who had not. As well, the odds of doing “very well” or “well” for children who had been diagnosed with attention deficit disorder were about half (0.6) the odds for children who had not.[572]

Disabilities such as reading disabilities can magnify the unique challenges First Nations, Métis and Inuit students face. For example, the MNO told the inquiry: “Individuals with learning/reading disabilities are marginalized. When they are Métis as well, they are a marginalized group within a marginalized group, which makes their needs even more complex.”

There are longstanding harmful stereotypes of First Nations, Inuit and Métis persons having inferior intelligence and ability to learn. These have serious negative implications for how educators perceive and interact with First Nations, Métis and Inuit students, and the students’ own sense of self-worth. There are also stereotypes about students with learning disabilities being less intelligent or being lazy. One survey respondent described the intersectional effect of stereotypes about First Nations peoples with learning disabilities:

It also appears to us that it is assumed he is not trying hard enough and he just needs to put in more effort – when he has a diagnosed learning disability – and it is hard not to think this does somehow relate to deep rooted stereotypes and perceptions regarding First Nations peoples.

The inquiry heard that Métis students are often discouraged from academic achievement, which affects their engagement with school. When they also have a disability, their needs go unnoticed and they “fall through the cracks” or are pushed ahead even though they are not achieving at grade level.

The inquiry heard that many of the challenges all students and families with reading difficulties face are amplified for First Nations, Métis and Inuit families:

• Navigating the education system is complex and difficult
• As in-school supports for students with disabilities tend to be limited, it puts the onus on parents to work with their children at home. This may be more challenging for First Nations, Métis and Inuit parents due to an intergenerational lack of literacy or reluctance towards the traditional school system
• The parents may themselves have learning disabilities that were never identified or supported
• First Nations, Métis and Inuit parents may have greater challenges supporting assistive technology accommodations.

As well, First Nations, Métis and Inuit students may face barriers accessing non-stigmatized services, have higher rates of poverty making it impossible to pay for private services, and often live in rural or northern locations that lack access to services due to geography.

For example, the inquiry heard that in parts of northern Ontario, access to holistic services that take language and cultural needs into account are limited due to lack of funding or lack of specialists in that field. It is very common for people to have to travel considerable distances, even out of Ontario (for example, from northwestern Ontario to Manitoba) to access services such as speech-language or psychology services.

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Barriers due to need for parent advocacy

In an education system that often puts the onus on parents to advocate for their children to receive supports and accommodations, students whose parents are not able to do so are at a disadvantage. The inquiry heard that advocacy can be more challenging for First Nations, Métis and Inuit parents and students.

One parent of a First Nations student with dyslexia attending school in a northern board stated that limited resources mean that Indigenous students may fall through the cracks:

There are no resources, what little resources are here are unavailable until a student is a specific age and has already given up AND the family is harassing the school for help. I have seen so many kids without support from family falling through the cracks and they are all Indigenous. Systemic racism.

The OHRC heard that due to the trauma from the residential school system, some parents fear “setting foot” in their children’s school. The MNO told the inquiry that residential and day schools have affected Métis parents and grandparents, making them feel their way of communication and interaction is unacceptable. They also said that when a school board denies an initial request, a Métis parent may see that as a “stopping point” and not feel they can continue to advocate, which is often necessary to gain access to a program, service or support.

A worker at an Indigenous Friendship Centre told us: “A lot of parents in the Indigenous community don’t get involved in their child’s education because they don’t feel like they have a right to or they feel intimidated by the school system.” Like other parents, First Nations, Métis and Inuit parents are reluctant to advocate for supports or accommodations for their child due to worries that “it’s going to come back to your child if you don’t shut up.”

First Nations, Métis and Inuit parents described fears that they would be judged by educators:

The system can be very intimidating. I’m not even visibly Indigenous but it didn’t make any difference for me going into the school system with my three kids. I had my children very young. You have young parents having children and made to feel like you’re just another young parent having kids out of wedlock.

Parents described feeling like they were being “talked down to” and said that students feel the same way.

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Lack of belonging and experiencing discrimination

We heard that First Nations, Métis and Inuit parents do not feel a sense of belonging in the schools:

When there’s a group of people, Indigenous and non-Indigenous, the Indigenous people don’t speak up because they might feel like they don’t belong or they could say something wrong or they aren’t educated. If the parent themselves has a learning disability or English is not their first language it is even more difficult.

First Nations, Métis and Inuit students also feel a lack of belonging when they experience racism and discrimination. The OHRC heard that this is an all-too-common experience. One parent described the impact of racism on her First Nations son with a reading disability:

[My son] has experienced discrimination at school from his peers with respect to being First Nations and has been teased for his last name. This has impacted his self-esteem and self-confidence and his schoolwork more broadly.

Another person talked of stereotyping:

People have an assumption that Native people are just lazy and they don’t want to work. That’s not true. We’re healing from a lot of intergenerational trauma. There’s a lot happening with our families that people just don’t understand.

A parent who completed a survey said her First Nations son has experienced “a lot of racism” and has brought books from the “school library and a social studies assignment with racist views.”

One parent of a racialized, First Nations student noted that “colonization and colonial stereotypes” had a negative impact on her son’s experience at school because of their intergenerational impacts:

If my son felt excited about going to school, if he excelled in reading and was respected by the education system for his diverse cultural background (and given reading material that reflected this diversity), and was taught structured literacy approaches based on reading science, I would not have to even think of writing this survey. I expect more than "lowered expectations" from teachers and the education system…My son's ethnicity, Indigeneity, and gender are things to be proud of and bring strength to him daily. 

The MNO described systemic racist beliefs, attitudes and stigma that start in the early years of schooling and have an impact throughout a student’s education.

The Ontario Federation of Indigenous Friendship Centres (OFIFC) states:

In school, Indigenous students continue to face racism and a general ignorance of their cultures among education staff and students. Anxiety, alienation, distrust, low self-confidence, and culture shock are just a few of the symptom[s] that can occur when Indigenous students are placed in an education system that has been slow to respond to their needs and where they may struggle to see themselves and their values reflected in the pedagogy, curriculum, and in the overall structure of Ontario’s education system. These conditions make learning a difficult, even painful experience, which can cause students to disengage.[573]

The OHRC also heard that teachers’ lack of cultural competency has led to stereotyping students. An example is assuming First Nations, Métis and Inuit students are lazy if they are not comfortable speaking up in class or are tired after being up late the previous night doing cultural activities like ice fishing.

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Importance of languages, culture and mentoring

Parents talked about the importance of exposure to First Nations, Métis and Inuit languages and cultural programming in schools for student engagement: “There’s a hole in them. They are missing that culture piece. They have this need.” An organization that serves urban Inuit talked of the importance of Inuit students learning to read and write Inuktitut.

Reports have confirmed the importance of exposure to Indigenous languages, cultures, histories, perspectives and contributions to the success of Indigenous students, including through the core curriculum and experiences that all students receive.[574]

Ontario’s Indigenous Education strategy includes this commitment.[575]

The MMIWG report found this is still not happening in schools:

Indigenous children and youth experience challenges and barriers in accessing education, particularly culturally relevant knowledge. Indigenous children and youth have the right to an education and to be educated in their culture and language. Most Indigenous children continue to be educated in mainstream education systems that exclude their Indigenous culture, language, history, and contemporary realities. A high-quality, culturally appropriate, and relevant education is the key to breaking cycles of trauma, violence, and abuse.[576]

The OHRC’s 2018 report, To dream together: Indigenous peoples and human rights dialogue report also identifies the importance of making education about First Nations, Inuit and Métis peoples and their languages, cultures and world views a priority in the education system.[577]

First Nations, Métis and Inuit self-determination in education leads to better outcomes.[578] For example, 20 years ago, the Nova Scotia Mi’kmaq First Nation took control of their education system when only 30% of their students were graduating from secondary school. Now over 90% of their students are graduating.[579] Alternative secondary school programs operated by Friendship Centres in Ontario are another example of the success of Indigenous-led education.[580]

The inquiry heard that mentoring and exposure to positive role models is vital: “We need older students to mentor. We also need mentoring from more Indigenous teachers.” A Government of Canada survey on First Nations education also found supportive relationships are critical, particularly for students transitioning from on-reserve First Nations schools to provincially funded schools:

Participants suggested that First Nation[s] students need a supportive person or persons at the off-reserve school to provide guidance and support. This could be a mentor or buddy arranged through a buddy program, or it could be a counsellor, community liaison worker, or teacher. These persons or groups could help students deal with racism, bullying, or other challenges.[581]

Elders also provide a vital role as knowledge keepers, in transmitting cultural knowledge to the younger generation, and in building stronger, healthier and more resilient young people, families and communities.[582]

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Lack of representation

First Nations, Métis and Inuit students need to see themselves reflected in the education system, in what is taught and how it is taught and in educator, school and board leadership.[583] One inquiry participant said:

Students need to see their ethnicity and Indigeneity reflected in their teachers, school staff, principals, trustees, the Ministry of Education, government, etc.

The inquiry heard that lack of representation is an issue. Where there is representation, it may not reflect each of First Nations, Métis and Inuit communities. For example, even where there are many Métis students in a school board, the board may have First Nations but not Métis representation. This lack of distinction alienates Métis students. The inquiry heard that an approach that recognizes the unique identities of and distinctions between First Nations, Métis and Inuit students and communities is very important.

 

Challenges with transitions

First Nations inquiry participants and school board representatives discussed the challenges associated with transitions between First Nations schools and provincially funded schools. Many students who attend First Nations schools will at some point transition to a school in the provincial system.[584] Most reserves do not have high schools.[585] Youth who grow up in remote and fly-in First Nations communities must often leave their community to attend high school in northern Ontario cities like Thunder Bay, Kenora, Dryden and Sioux Lookout.[586] A First Nations student who lives on-reserve may attend a provincially funded school anywhere in Ontario, subject to space availability and payment of tuition by the First Nation to the local school board. In some cases, families move off-reserve so their children can attend provincially funded schools.

First Nations students who transition from their community schools to provincially funded schools and Inuit students who come from Northern communities experience many new challenges as they adapt to new situations, friends, cultures and environments.[587]

The inquiry heard about “culture shock” when students leave their communities.[588] The Seven Youth inquest also heard significant evidence about the serious and sometimes grave challenges that youth from remote NAN communities face when they must leave their communities to attend high school in cities such as Thunder Bay.[589]

Many inquiry participants noted that underfunding of First Nations schools, shortage of teachers, teacher inexperience and teacher turnover affect the quality of education that students received before entering the provincial system: “Teachers fly into our communities for a year or less and then they leave.”

Another participant said: “We find that kids are three to four grades behind when they come from reserve schools to Ontario public schools.”

Several inquiry participants noted that students entering provincially funded schools are sometimes identified as having a learning disability for the first time. However, it is not clear if the disability was not flagged in the First Nations school, or they do not have a learning disability but are behind due to the quality of teaching in the First Nations school:

The ones that really struggle are the ones that attend reserve school then go into public education system. Is it really a learning disability or is it that they were not taught properly?

For Inuit students, there can also be delays in receiving records from Inuit Nunangat[590] schools.[591]

The evidence in the Seven Youth inquest was that students entering high school after elementary education on-reserve often need to catch up to peers academically, and are dealing with other challenges. Schools in the provincial system must be prepared to identify and respond to this reality.[592]

A Chiefs of Ontario position paper on special education also emphasizes the importance of making sure transitions to and from provincial boards and schools do not detract from student success. The paper recommends that the provincial government provide better overall support for First Nations children with special needs attending provincially funded schools; public school boards be culturally responsive to better meet the needs of First Nations learners; and improvements be made in communication between schools, school boards and First Nations.[593]

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Overcoming barriers

Despite these significant barriers, First Nations, Métis and Inuit students and parents are working hard to find success in education.[594] Parents are doing as much as they can to support their children, including children with reading difficulties. Many talked about taking their children out of an on-reserve school in the hopes they would receive better supports in the provincial system. They described trying to find and pay for tutoring and other supports to address their children’s needs. A single mother of three talked about her efforts to balance her work, keep her children busy and out of trouble through afterschool activities like hockey and gymnastics, and provide homework support. Another mother said she did everything she could to help her child with schoolwork despite never receiving a proper education herself.

A First Nations man with a learning disability described how he overcame trauma and poverty, including coming to school hungry, to learn how to read. Now he is pursuing a master’s degree, while also having a job. He described how hard he must work to keep up with the volume of reading and writing in his graduate program.

First Nations, Métis and Inuit governments and organizations are also stepping in to fill the gaps the system has left. For example, the MNO’s Education Support Advocacy program helps its Métis citizens navigate the public education system, connects them with tutoring supports, psychological assessments and speech-language services, and provides other services that meet the needs of Métis learners. However, the provincial government does not fund the MNO to deliver these education services. The MNO has made this work a priority using resources from other areas.

Indigenous Friendship Centres also have education services and supports for urban Indigenous communities. They offer an Alternative Secondary School Program that combines the Ontario curriculum with cultural programming and an Indigenous pedagogical model. 

Tungasuvvingat Inuit also has a focus on education for urban Inuit. It provides education policy advocacy and education supports for Inuit living outside of Inuit Nunangat.

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Achievement gap

Given the systemic challenges, it is not surprising that there is an achievement gap between Indigenous and non-Indigenous students in Ontario schools. Some gains have been made in recent years. However, using EQAO scores, credit accumulation rates and graduation rates as measures,[595] students who have voluntarily identified as First Nations, Métis or Inuit are still behind other Ontario students.[596]

Ontario has an Ontario First Nation, Métis, and Inuit Education Policy Framework, 2007 (the Framework) to improve achievement among Indigenous students, and reports on progress every three years. The most recent report is from May 2018: Strengthening Our Learning Journey: Third Progress Report on the Implementation of the Ontario First Nation, Métis, and Inuit Education Policy Framework. Using EQAO data from 2015–16 it reports:

• 47% of First Nations, 39% of Métis and 52% of Inuit students in the English-language system did not meet the provincial standard on the Grade 3 reading assessment, compared to 28% of all English students[597]
• 21% of First Nations and 23% of Métis students[598] in the French-language system did not meet the provincial standard on the Grade 3 reading assessment, compared to 18% of all French students[599]
• 38% of First Nations, 30% of Métis and 45% of Inuit students in the English-language system did not meet the provincial standard on the Grade 6 reading assessment, compared to 19% of all English students[600]
• 22% of First Nations and 10% of Métis students[601] in the French-language system did not meet the provincial standard on the Grade 6 reading assessment, compared to 9% of all French students[602]
• The percentage of fully participating, first-time eligible students who were successful on the Ontario Secondary School Literacy Test (OSSLT) in the English-language system was 59% for First Nations, 71% for Métis and 63% for Inuit students, compared to 81% of all students[603]
• The percentage of fully participating, first-time eligible students who were successful on the OSSLT in the French-language system was 92% for First Nations and 93% for Métis students, compared to 91% of all students.[604]

Five-year graduation rates for self-identified First Nations, Métis and Inuit students in provincially funded schools are lower than provincial rates for all students.[605]

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Voluntary self-identification and analysis of student data

The Ministry has encouraged all Ontario school boards to develop policies to have First Nations, Métis and Inuit students voluntarily self-identify. Among other things, this data should be collected to better support these students with literacy and numeracy (including better outcomes on EQAO reading, writing and mathematics assessments); improve graduation rates; and support advancement to post-secondary studies.[606]

There are challenges with getting students to self-identify. Many First Nations, Inuit and Métis persons continue to view data collection with suspicion or concern. We heard they may feel they have been “researched to death,” often by colonial institutions that have not used culturally safe research practices. They may not want to self-identify because of historic mistreatment, past misuse of data, and mistrust of the education system due to the legacy of residential schools, among other reasons. They may be afraid that data will be used to portray them negatively or not used in a respectful way.[607] We heard that they may be afraid that if they identify as First Nations, Métis or Inuit, their child may be more likely to be taken into the child welfare system. We also heard that they may not know whether and how self-identification is being used for the benefit of First Nations, Métis and Inuit students. Therefore, provincial and school board data may not include all First Nations, Métis and Inuit students. More effort is needed to consider and incorporate Indigenous research methodologies[608] and create a safe environment for voluntary self-identification.

The OHRC requested information from the eight inquiry school boards to learn more about First Nations, Métis and Inuit students with reading disabilities. As each school board has a self-identification policy, they were able to provide more information about First Nations, Métis and Inuit students than other student groups. However, there was still inconsistency in the quality of the data. For example, one board reported it does not break down data by First Nation, Inuit and Métis identification, and does not collect data on achievement (such as on course completion or graduation rates) for students who have self-identified. Several boards did not provide data on credit accumulation, whether First Nations, Métis and Inuit students have IEPs or have been identified with an LD exceptionality, or graduation rates.[609]

Only one board, Ottawa-Carleton, provided an Annual Achievement Report, which shows that it proactively monitors achievement data for students who self-identify as First Nations, Métis or Inuit. Another board, Thames Valley, said it produces a similar report. The Ministry said there is an Indigenous Education Analytical Profile Tool which supports school boards and the ministry to conduct in-depth analysis of Indigenous education data.

The inquiry school boards were able to provide some data about EQAO scores for First Nations, Métis and Inuit students. The data presented in Table 16 includes participating and non-participating students. Although school boards should break down and analyze data by First Nations, Métis and Inuit identification for their own purposes, and should provide targeted responses to any issues they identify for each group, this report does not break down the school board data by First Nations, Métis and Inuit identification due to the small sample sizes and risk of compromising individual student identities.

 

Table 16: Percentage of First Nations, Métis and Inuit students who met the provincial standard in the 2018–19 EQAO reading assessment[610]

	Percentage of students who have self-identified as Indigenous	Overall met the standard Grade 3 EQAO	Indigenous met the standard Grade 3 EQAO	Overall met the standard Grade 6 EQAO	Indigenous met the standard Grade 6 EQAO
Hamilton-Wentworth	0.1	67	67	73	68
Keewatin-Patricia	52	59	39	72	51
Lakehead	21	71	53	75	57
London Catholic	0.5	72	N/A	78	N/A
Ottawa-Carleton	2	76	63	82	61
Peel	0.1	75	Not provided	81	Not provided
Simcoe Muskoka Catholic	1.5	67	69	79	89
Thames Valley	2.5	63	45	73	48

Consistent with provincial EQAO data, with a few exceptions,[611] students who have self-identified as First Nations, Métis and Inuit in the eight inquiry school boards were less likely to meet the provincial reading standard.[612]

The inquiry heard concerns that EQAO data is not shared with First Nations, Métis and Inuit communities, so they are not aware of any issues and cannot respond to them. For example, EQAO data about Métis students is not shared with the MNO. The MNO said it needs this data to act for the benefit of its Métis citizens.

Board Action Plans on First Nations, Métis and Inuit Education are supposed to be developed in partnership with Indigenous communities. The inquiry heard that in practice not all First Nations, Métis and Inuit communities that are represented among students in the board are always consulted. For example, Métis communities can be overlooked in developing these plans.

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Teaching reading to First Nations, Métis and Inuit students

Although there are additional considerations to adequately meet the instructional needs of First Nations, Métis and Inuit children, there is evidence that “First Nations children who are failing to read tend to be more similar than different when compared with children from non–First Nations cultures that are also failing to read.”[613] One paper noted that as with other children:

[P]honological awareness variables and rapid naming were the strongest predictors of reading achievement for First Nations children. This supports what has been repeatedly found in reading literature that suggests that phonological ability is core to reading and specific learning disabilities…[614]

Similarly, another study concluded:

As far as the present study is concerned, we showed that the relationship between cognitive processes and reading that is found in the general population is replicable irrespective of the children's membership in the FN community…”[615]

Like all students, First Nations, Métis and Inuit students require the same foundational skills in phonological awareness to learn to read:

There is extensive correlational and experimental evidence that oral language and phonological awareness are key to success in learning to read in English… This finding has been corroborated in all other languages studied…and holds even when age, language ability, IQ, social class, and…memory are controlled…For these reasons, identifying the most effective methods for teaching reading to Aboriginal children may have the strongest long-term results when directed at the beginning steps to reading.[616] [Emphasis added.]

Direct instruction in foundational reading skills for word-level reading is just as important for First Nations, Métis and Inuit students as for other students. Overall, the studies found lower word reading skills among First Nations students,[617] making direct instruction in foundational skills extremely important to help narrow literacy gaps between Indigenous and non-Indigenous students. For example, studies of the literacy gap seen in Indigenous children in Australia discuss the importance of using science-based approaches for developing the building blocks for early reading skills, including phonological skills, for Indigenous student success.[618]

Similarly, interventions that target phonological awareness, letter-sound correspondence knowledge and decoding are just as effective, if not more effective, for Indigenous students. One study looked at ABRACADABRA, a web-based reading tool, and found:

Indigenous students [in Australia] gained significantly more per hour of instruction than non-Indigenous students in phonological awareness and early literacy skills. Results suggest that ABRACADABRA prevents lags in foundational literacy experienced by poor readers including Indigenous students.[619]

A school board in Fort Nelson, a small rural town in the northeast corner of British Columbia, reported positive outcomes for all students, particularly Indigenous students, after implementing a framework for addressing reading difficulties. As well as daily reading instruction, all students were screened with phonological awareness measures in Kindergarten and Grade 1. Students identified as requiring additional support received supplemental instruction in phonological awareness, decoding and reading fluency. As a result, student literacy scores increased in each of the four years of implementation:

[S]tudents’ scores on the Grade 4 provincial reading comprehension assessment were far above the provincial average for all students, with 92% meeting or exceeding expectations (compared with 68% provincially), and Aboriginal students, with 94% meeting or exceeding expectations (compared with 51% provincially). These outcomes have been realized despite high vulnerability in a provincial measure of child development, including ranking in the top five most vulnerable districts in the province in terms of social competence and emotional, maturity.[620] [Emphasis added.]

The Model Schools Literacy Project (MSLP), a partnership between First Nations schools and the Martin Family Initiative, has shown the potential of evidence-based literacy programs in Kindergarten to Grade 3 to improve early literacy achievement for First Nations students.

The MSLP emphasizes professional learning for teachers and school leaders because research shows that teaching is the most influential school-based factor in children’s reading achievement, and because teacher education programs in Canada do not cover the specific skills needed to teach reading and writing to young children.[621] In addition to supporting teachers, the project focuses on formative assessment to guide literacy instruction; teaching, including direct instruction in all core reading and writing skills; and contexts for learning (such as parental involvement and community engagement).[622]

The report on the initiative stated:

The plan’s effectiveness was demonstrated in the earlier pilot program (2010–2014). Before the pilot began, 13% of Grade 3 children were reading at grade level on the Ontario provincial assessment; when it ended, 81% reached or exceeded that level, and the percentage of children identified for speech and language support decreased from 45% to 19%.[623]

Although the MSLP is an English-language literacy project, in each school, the community’s Indigenous language and culture are taught. The project values both languages in the school equally and recognizes that gaining skills in one language strengthens learning skills in other languages.[624] The report stated:

…multiple cognitive, social and cultural benefits accrue to children with proficiency in their own Indigenous language and English. To strengthen that interdependence, classroom teachers in the MSLP are encouraged and supported to incorporate language, history and culture into children’s reading and writing activities.[625]

Some studies also suggest that Indigenous students respond well to teaching methods that use elements of Indigenous culture.[626] Teaching early foundational skills should incorporate First Nations, Métis and Inuit culture (for example, through words, music and movement) for teaching phonological awareness, letter-sound correspondences and word reading.[627] As with all students, foundational word-reading skills need to be developed within the overall context of a full literacy program for Indigenous students.

Along with high-quality, evidence-based instruction on early foundational reading skills, First Nations, Métis and Inuit students need holistic approaches to learning and high-quality learning environments that are consistent with Indigenous world views.[628] Educators need to connect with local First Nations, Métis and Inuit communities to find ways to incorporate their experiences and values throughout classroom content.[629] These elements are additions to rather than substitutes for direct and systematic instruction in foundational reading skills. Families reported wanting their children to experience and learn about their culture and to have the instruction they need to be successful across the school curriculum and beyond. The MSLP report noted:

First Nations want their children to know their own language and culture, be proud of their identity and have the literacy skills necessary to pursue unlimited options and opportunities for their lifetime.[630]

The recommendations relating to curriculum, instruction, early screening, accommodation and professional assessments later in this report will benefit First Nations, Métis and Inuit students. Also, the recommendations below address some of the unique needs of these students in Ontario schools.

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Recommendations

The OHRC makes the following recommendations:

 

Recognize distinctions

1. The Ministry of Education (Ministry), school boards and others should use “First Nations, Métis and Inuit” when possible and appropriate. Recognizing and distinguishing between First Nations, Métis and Inuit makes sure that all First Nations, Métis and Inuit children and youth see themselves in the school system, feel represented, and have trust that their unique needs are understood and being met.

 

2. The recommendations in this report should also be interpreted and implemented in a way that addresses the unique needs of distinct Indigenous peoples. First Nations, Métis and Inuit self-identification in terms of community and Nation as well as geographic or region-specific distinctions should be taken into account.[631] Local decision-makers such as school boards should learn about and consult local Indigenous communities.

 

Follow existing recommendations for supporting First Nations, Métis and Inuit students

 

3. Many reports have made recommendations to improve First Nations, Métis and Inuit students’ learning, experiences and well-being in school. Recommendations have included improving access to First Nations, Michif and Inuktut language instruction, First Nations, Métis and Inuit culture, knowledge and perspectives for all students; providing professional development for educators and board professional staff; easing transitions for students; and taking steps to address racism and systemic discrimination. The Ontario Ministry of Education and every Ontario school board should implement all existing recommendations for supporting First Nations, Métis and Inuit students including:

1. The May 2017 First Nations Special Education Review Report and the 2017 Chiefs of Ontario Position Paper recommendations that relate to Ontario’s role in First Nations special education[632]
2. The Ontario Federation of Indigenous Friendship Centres’ recommendations on how to address the accessibility needs of urban Indigenous students, in its July 2017 Response to the Development of an Accessibility Standard for Education[633]
3. The recommendations to Ontario from the Seven Youth inquest[634]
4. The Truth and Reconciliation Calls to Action, particularly those related to education and updating all provincial curriculum to include Indigenous perspectives and content[635]
5. The National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls’ Calls for Justice, particularly those related to education.[636]
6. The Council of Ontario Directors of Education Listening Stone Project Reports[637]
7. The OHRC’s recommendations in To Dream Together: Indigenous peoples and human rights dialogue report.[638]

When implementing recommendations in these reports related to Indigenous content in curriculum and culturally appropriate resources for First Nations, Métis and Inuit learners, the Ministry and school boards should make sure First Nations, Métis and Inuit are each reflected and children from these communities see their own identities positively reflected in the materials. This will give them a sense of belonging and pride.

 

4. The Ontario Ministry of Education and all Ontario school boards should review and, where necessary, revise the First Nations, Métis and Inuit Policy Framework and Indigenous Education Strategy, to make sure it reflects these recommendations.

 

5. The Ontario Ministry of Education, and all Ontario school boards, should make sure boards have an Indigenous Education Advisory Council as required under the Ontario First Nation, Métis, and Inuit Education Policy Framework Implementation Plan.[639] School boards should make sure the Councils, and any other places where First Nations, Métis and Inuit students are discussed, are representative of each of the Indigenous communities that are represented in the school board, to ensure that distinct needs and perspectives of students and families are addressed.

 

6. The Ontario Ministry of Education and all Ontario school boards should use the UN Declaration as a framework for implementing these recommendations.[640] The UN Declaration should be interpreted in conjunction with the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (Articles 7 and 24) and the Convention on the Rights of the Child (Article 28).[641]

 

Treat First Nations schools equitably

7. The federal government should implement the recommendations for federally funded First Nations schools in reports referenced in Recommendation 3.

 

8. First Nations schools should receive funding that is equitable compared to provincially funded schools, and any additional funding needed to ensure substantive equality, considering the unique circumstances of students attending First Nations schools.

 

9. The recommendations in this report should be implemented in First Nations schools, as applicable.

 

Use trauma-informed and culturally sensitive approaches

10. The Ministry of Education should encourage all school boards and schools to adopt trauma-informed and culturally safe approaches including by providing guidance, resources and supports.

 

11. All school boards and schools should create trauma-informed and culturally safe school environments and provide comprehensive, sustained and job-embedded training to educators on trauma-informed and culturally safe practices.

 

Identify Indigenous students and provide access to supports

12. School boards should not delay or fail to identify Indigenous students with learning difficulties based on culturally biased practices/assessments or assumptions related to their Indigenous identity.

 

13. Ontario should publicize, adopt and implement a broad approach to Jordan’s Principle and Inuit Child First Initiative funding, consistent with the purpose of ensuring substantive equality, that recognizes that federal funding is available for any government service that is provided to children including health, social and education services such as professional assessments, tutoring and assistive technology.

 

14. Ontario school boards and community service providers should know the criteria and process for applying for federal Jordan’s Principle or Inuit Child First Initiative funding, and promote the use of this funding to access supports to address any needs of First Nations and Inuit students.

 

15. School boards and schools should recognize the role of Friendship Centres and urban Inuit organizations in coordinating holistic, culture-based supports for urban First Nations and Inuit students and their families.

 

16. Ontario school boards and community service providers should understand the role of the MNO in representing and providing wrap-around services to its Métis citizens. The Ministry and school boards should work as partners with the MNO and Métis communities in the school board’s area. School boards should foster the relationship between schools and the MNO’s Education Support Advocacy program. Financial contributions from the province to the MNO’s Education Support Advocacy program would allow for enhanced supports to be provided to Métis learners in a predictable way every year.

 

17. Provincial and federal funding for supports for First Nations, Métis and Inuit students should provide for additional costs associated with northern, remote or isolated circumstances, and should include the cost of travel to receive services, where necessary.

 

18. School boards and schools should recognize First Nations, Métis and Inuit Elders as knowledge keepers and educators, and recognize their role in transmitting cultural knowledge to the younger generation and building stronger, healthier and more resilient young people, families and communities. School boards and schools should increase access to Elders and guest speakers in schools and make sure Elders/guest speakers are representative of all First Nations, Métis and Inuit students represented in the board.

 

19. School boards’ acknowledgements of Indigenous peoples and territories should recognize each of First Nations, Inuit and Métis peoples and territories as appropriate. They should also recognize significant events and days, such as Treaties Recognition Week,[642] National Indigenous Peoples Day, Powley Day[643] and Louis Riel Day.[644]

 

Use instruction and intervention approaches that are effective and inclusive

20. The Ontario Ministry of Education and all school boards should provide evidence-based curriculum and classroom instruction in foundational reading skills in a way that is inclusive to all students, including First Nations, Métis and Inuit students. They should find ways to also incorporate Indigenous experiences, culture and values throughout classroom content.

 

21. Educators should not promote the English or French languages of instruction at the expense of Indigenous languages. They should encourage proficiency in Indigenous languages, recognize the benefits for children when they have proficiency in their own Indigenous language and the language of instruction (English or French), and never discourage students from using or learning their language.

 

22. For First Nations, Métis and Inuit students with or at risk for word reading disabilities, school boards should provide immediate intervention with evidence-based programs. Delays in providing interventions or using interventions that are not rooted in strong evidence with a focus on foundational reading skills will further disadvantage these students.

 

Improve approaches to self-Identification and data

23. School boards should work with First Nations, Métis and Inuit governments (local First Nations governments and the MNO) and local organizations (such as Friendship Centres, Tungasuvvingat Inuit) to understand and respond to any concerns with self-identification. They should clearly communicate how self-identification benefits First Nations, Métis and Inuit students and how self-identification data will be kept confidential and used. They should never use self-identification data to portray First Nations, Métis or Inuit students in a negative or disrespectful way.

 

24. School boards should make sure they have data on the percentage of students who self-identify as First Nations, Métis and Inuit overall, and broken down by First Nation, Métis and Inuit.

 

25. School boards should collect and analyze data on achievement and outcomes (such as EQAO results, course completion and graduation rates) for students who have self-identified as First Nations, Métis and Inuit. They should track whether First Nations, Métis and Inuit students have IEPs or have been identified with an LD exceptionality (see also recommendations related to data collection in section 13, Systemic issues). They should respond to any equity gaps identified in the data.

 

26. School boards should share this data with First Nations, Métis and Inuit governments (local First Nations governments and the MNO) and local organizations (such as Friendship Centres, Tungasuvvingat Inuit) on a regular basis. They should work as partners with these governments and organizations to make sure culturally appropriate supports can be provided to improve First Nations, Métis and Inuit students’ outcomes.